South Asian Outlook : An Independent e-Monthly | South Asia: Theories on Paksitan's Origin

Theories on Pakistan's Origins

BY ISHTIAQ AHMED (IDN) *

The official position on the origin of Pakistan is something like this: Muslims are expected to lead their lives in accordance with comprehensive Islamic injunctions. For doing that, an Islamic polity is imperative. Hence Indian Muslims were bound to demand a separate state for themselves whenever an opportunity arose.

The end of British colonialism provided such an opportunity and the Muslims whole-heartedly responded to the call for a separate Muslim state on the Indian subcontinent. Some versions of such theorising locate the origins of Pakistan in the arrival of the Arabs in the subcontinent in 711. Islam and Hinduism, it is argued, represent two diametrically opposite worldviews. Therefore partition was inevitable.

Another set of theories can be called 'cultural-geographical theories'. We are told that six thousand years ago a distinct civilisation evolved around the Indus River and its various tributaries (roughly corresponding to the present territories of Pakistan) and remained separate for most of those six thousand years from the one centred on the Indo-Gangetic plains of Northern India. The sharp contrast between them being that the Indus Valley Civilisation evolved a liberal and egalitarian ethos deriving from the influence of various unorthodox creeds and movements which during the Muslim period were blended into the mystical forms of Sufi Islam, while the rest of India was organized into an hierarchical and rigid social system which found its ultimate perfection in the Hindu caste system. Hence, when the British withdrew from South Asia the Muslims of the Indus Valley Civilisation chose to separate from the rest of India. Such a theory it may be noted has no room for East Pakistan being part of Pakistan.

Another cluster of theories deriving from Marxism, look upon the movement for Pakistan as a democratic mass movement of the oppressed Muslim community against the dominant Hindu majority. Here, emphasis is given to the head start that Hindus and Sikhs enjoyed in taking to modern education in the schools established by the British. The Muslims lagged behind and consequently the non-Muslims captured the main sectors of the emerging capitalist economy. In particular the overwhelmingly Muslim agrarian classes including various categories of peasants were deeply indebted to the Hindu and Sikh money-lenders. An ideology of popular, egalitarian Islam attracted Muslims from all segments of society and therefore the establishment of Pakistan was the culmination of a protracted struggle to liberate Muslims from the yoke of Hindu-Sikh domination.

The most famous of these Marxist theories is the one put forth by the late Hamza Alavi. He asserted that the most ardent supporters of the idea of Pakistan were not the ulema but the Muslim salariat. The salariat comprised the sizable body of modern-educated Muslims who perceived that the creation of Pakistan would drastically improve their chances of finding employment with the state than if they were not to remain a part of a united India dominated by the more economically and educationally advanced Hindu majority. Thus, it is argued, Pakistan was not established out of confessional zeal but secular concerns of the salariat.

Alavi, however, never at any stage studied the actual dynamics of the Pakistan movement after the Lahore resolution of 1940. Therefore he was completely oblivious of the fact that the Muslim League made its breakthrough in the Punjab and NWFP only when it won over the Barelvi ulema and pirs. There is solid evidence to prove that Jinnah assured the ulema that the Shariah will apply to Muslims in Pakistan.

Theories based on high politics deriving from the role of individuals in the making of history, identify the role of Mohamed Ali Jinnah as pivotal and decisive to the creation of Pakistan. Without his towering leadership, it is asserted, the movement of Pakistan would not have succeeded. No only his lieutenants and followers are portrayed as political pygmies but even his adversaries with the exception of Gandhi, perhaps, are considered light-weights. Some theories suggest that Jinnah never actually wanted the division of India and sought at most a fair share of power for Muslims in a united India and it was the Congress leaders who spurned his overtures for an accommodation within a loose federation and instead precipitated the partition because they wanted to rule India through a powerful centre. Ayesha Jalal is the main proponent of this variant of the role of individuals in history.

Other theories identify the fear of the Muslim upper classes of domination by Hindus. It is asserted that upper class Muslim leaders were not willing to accept a junior role for themselves in united India. Muslims had ruled India for more than 600 years and they could not understand why under a democratic system they should be deprived of power and influence. The veteran Khalid bin Sayeed champions such a theory.

Some theories identify a British hand in the creation of Pakistan. It has been suggested that the British were keen to use Pakistan as a base for their geopolitical and geo-economic designs in South Asia. In this regard, in a meeting held on May 12 1947 in London the chiefs of staff of various branches of the British armed forces and in the presence of Field Marshal Montgomery and Lord Ismay, it was observed:

'From the strategic point of view there were overwhelming arguments in favour of Western Pakistan remaining within the Commonwealth, namely, that we should obtain important strategic facilities, the port of Karachi, air bases and the support of the Moslem manpower in the future… A refusal of an application to this end would amount to ejecting loyal people from the British Commonwealth, and would probably lose us all chances of ever getting strategic facilities anywhere in India…. From a military point of view, such a result would be catastrophic' (Mansergh, N and Moon, P (eds), The Transfer of Power 1942-47, vol. 10. pp. 791-2).

Whatever the explanation for the origins of Pakistan, it is imperative that it becomes a state in which the rule of law and social justice prevail. For the Pakistani nation, the challenge is to look forward and not backwards.

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* This article was first published in the News International . The author is a visiting senior research fellow at the Institute of South Asian Studies (ISAS), National University of Singapore on leave from the University of Stockholm. Email: isasia@nus.edu.sg.

News Briefs

Government reverses decision on placing ISI under interior ministry’s control: On July 27, the Government reversed its decision to place the country’s external intelligence agency – the Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) – under the administrative, financial and operational control of the Interior Division. The Press Information Department had issued a memorandum late on July 26 stating that the ISI and the Intelligence Bureau (IB) have been placed under the Interior Division’s control. The Pakistan People’s Party (PPP)-led Government, however, later ‘clarified’ the earlier notification, saying the ISI would continue to operate at the Prime Minister’s discretion. Under the new notification, the ISI will continue to perform its functions under the Prime Minister. It said: "The said notification only re-emphasises more co-ordination between the Ministry of Interior and the ISI in relation to the war on terror and internal security." However, the Government stood by its decision to place the IB under the Interior Division. Dawn; Daily Times, July 28, 2008.

Cease-fire accord signed in Hangu district of NWFP: A grand jirga (a large congress), representing the Taliban, and Kohat’s regional coordination officer, who represented the authorities, signed a cease-fire agreement on July 24, 2008 and decided to resolve through talks all disputes arising out of the military operation in Hangu District. The jirga held a meeting with the Orakzai Agency’s Political Agent, Kamran Zeb, and informed him that the Taliban would be allowed to stay in the tribal area on condition that they would stop meddling in affairs of state and refrain from imposing their own laws and punishments. Member of National Assembly, Pir Haider Ali Shah, said concerns of both sides would be discussed at various levels from time to time and disputes would be resolved for restoration of normalcy in the region. "The first priority of the jirga will be to get hostages released from the custody of Taliban and to free their three high-profile comrades out of the seven arrested from Doaba," he said, adding that "the next step will be to ask the military to withdraw from the area if Taliban give assurance that they will not challenge the writ of the Government again". Dawn, July 25, 2008.

33 militants and nine soldiers killed in clashes in Balochistan: Approximately 43 persons, including 33 militants, nine Frontier Corps (FC) soldiers and a Pakistan Petroleum Limited engineer, were killed and many injured during clashes between the security forces and militants in the Toba Sandrani area of Dera Bugti District on July 20, 2008. The clashes that started on July 19 continued the next day also in the Uch, Shah Zain and other areas. According to FC sources, nine injured militants were arrested and a large cache of arms and ammunition was recovered from their possession. The FC personnel have also reportedly arrested over two dozen armed men and recovered ammunition from their possession. The situation in Sui and Dera Bugti area is reported to have worsened and security has been put on high alert in Naseerabad, Jaffarabad and Jhal Magsi as well, following the military operations. Security Forces claimed to have destroyed two camps from where the militants were launching attacks on gas installations and Security Force personnel. "The operation has been continuing for two days against militants involved in attacks on gas installations in the Uch area," unnamed official sources said. They said three militant commanders were among those killed. Dawn; The News, July 21, 2008.

50 militants killed as two rival groups clash in Mohmand Agency: Despite a cease-fire brokered by two senior Afghan Taliban commanders on July 17, 2008, two rival militant groups clashed on July 18, killing more than 50 militants and injuring dozens in the Mohmand Agency of FATA. The two groups – the Baitullah Mehsud-led Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP) and Commander Shah Khalid-led militants, who are considered pro-Government — have been fighting since July 15 for the control of the Mohmand Agency. The two groups were running separate training centres and had set up checkpoints on roadsides. After two days of fighting, a two-member jirga (council) comprising two senior Afghan Taliban commanders — Ustad Mohammad Yasir and Maulvi Sadre Azam — mediated between them and brokered a truce on July 17. However, fighting erupted again when militants associated with Shah Khalid attacked one of Commander Omar Khalid’s senior commanders, Qari Shakil, when he entered Khwezo, a town considered to be a stronghold of the Shah Khalid group. Subsequently, heavy clashes broke out between the two sides, in which sophisticated weapons were used. Tribal and militant sources said that both the sides suffered heavy losses and, so far, 50 people, a majority of them from Shah Khalid’s group, were confirmed dead and dozens injured. The News, July 19, 2008.

Military operations launched against militants in Hangu district of NWFP: At least 15 militants were killed and an unspecified number of them have been wounded since military operations were launched in the Hangu District of NWFP on July 16, 2008. Security Forces, on July 17, attacked militants around Hangu, clearing several Taliban strongholds. "We have cleared Shamana Fort and Zarguri and Naryab areas north of Hangu," military spokesman Major General Athar Abbas disclosed. He added that the "operation will be expanded as some areas are yet to be cleared." In the crackdown launched late on July 16, "the Security Forces, backed by tanks and gunship helicopters, also secured Naryab Dam", local officials said. The spokesman said there were some casualties on the militants’ side, adding that the exact numbers were not available. Dawn; Daily Times; The News, July 17-21, 2008.

13 Frontier Constabulary personnel among 17 persons killed by Taliban in the NWFP: At least 17 people – including 13 Frontier Constabulary (FC) personnel – were killed in the afternoon of July 12 in a clash between Taliban and security forces (SFs) in the Hangu District of NWFP. The fighting erupted after Taliban militants ambushed an FC convoy in the Drori Banda area of Hangu. The dead also included three civilians and a local militant, residents and Taliban sources said. Member of the National Assembly Pir Haidar Shah said the FC convoy was heading towards Hangu town from its fort in Drori Banda when it was attacked by the militants at around 5.30 pm (PST). Daily Times, July 13, 2008.

Ranks of foreign militants swelling in FATA, says Chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff: More foreign fighters, including al Qaeda militants, are operating in Pakistan’s tribal areas than in the past, the top US military officer said during a visit to Kabul on July 10, 2008. Admiral Mike Mullen said militants are flowing into Afghanistan more freely this year, compared with 2007, because Pakistan’s Government and military are not putting enough pressure on the insurgents. "There’s a clear problem on the border," Mullen, the chairman of the US Joint Chiefs of Staff, said. "There’s clearly not enough pressure being brought to bear, particularly on the Pakistan side of the border. There’s more freedom there," he said. "There are clearly more foreign fighters in the FATA (Pakistan’s Federally Administered Tribal Areas) than have been there in the past," he added. The News, July 11, 2008.

Lashkar-i-Islam militants barred from Bara under peace agreement signed in Khyber Agency: The political administration and Lashkar-i-Islam (LI) signed an agreement on July 9, 2008, making it binding on the banned group to accept the Government’s writ in the Bara subdivision of Khyber Agency. The agreement, signed by officials of the political Administration and six elders of the Afridi tribe, prohibits the movement of LI supporters in Bara town and display of weapons. The group’s chief Mangal Bagh and his men will not attack security forces and Government installations. Haji Shaukat Khan, a member of the jirga (council) which negotiated the agreement, told Dawn that security forces would stop the operation in the area and return to barracks. He said, all the people detained during the operation would be released on July 9. Assistant political Agent of Bara, Khalid Mumtaz Kundi, and two other officials signed the agreement on behalf of the Administration. Haji Amal Gul, Haji Momin Khan, Haji Shaukat, Haji Noor Behadur, Rasool Jan and Yaseen Khan of the Afridi tribe signed on behalf of the LI. The LI will be liable to pay a fine of PKR 30 million and surrender 25 Kalashnikovs in case of violation of the agreement. Dawn, July 10, 2008.

Lashkar-e-Islam chief Mangal Bagh wanted to bomb Parliament, says Prime Minister Gilani: Prime Minister Syed Yousuf Raza Gilani on July 7, 2008, revealed that the Lashkar-e-Islam chief Mangal Bagh, who was involved in terrorist activities in the Khyber Agency, had assured the contesting candidates in the February 18, 2008, elections of success if they took oath of facilitating suicide bombing inside Parliament. "I can tell you with authority that Mangal Bagh assured the candidates that only those who pledged to help carry out suicide bombing on Parliament would emerge victorious in the elections," the Prime Minister said while talking to newsmen on board a special plane en route to the Malaysian capital, Kuala Lumpur, to attend the D-8 summit. The News, July 8, 2008.

15 policemen among 20 persons killed in suicide attack in Islamabad: 20 persons, including 15 policemen, were killed and more than 40 persons sustained injuries in a suicide attack near the Melody Market area of capital Islamabad on July 6, 2008. The suicide bomber targeted policemen deployed at a rally observing the first year anniversary of an Army raid on the Lal Masjid (Red mosque) in Islamabad. "The whole event at the mosque went smoothly but then the suicide bomber targeted the security," Adviser to the Prime Minister on Interior Rehman Malik told reporters. A policeman at the Aabpara Police Station, which is a few yards from the blast site, said that the explosion occurred after an inspector had finished a count of the Police personnel inside the compound. "A young man walked into the Police contingent and apparently blew himself up," a senior security official told AFP. The News; Daily Times, July 7, 2008.

Al Qaeda regrouping in Tribal Areas, says US Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff: United States (US) Homeland Security Secretary Michael Chertoff has said al Qaeda is regrouping in the border areas of Pakistan. Talking to BBC on July 4, 2008, Chertoff said he feared al Qaeda and other militant groups could resume their activities after turning the Pakistani Tribal Areas bordering Afghanistan into their centre. He said Pakistan was so far not a safe haven for al Qaeda as was Afghanistan at one time, but neither the US nor Pakistan should remain indifferent to the problem. "Our biggest apprehension is that al Qaeda and the likes have the ability to secure such safe havens where not only can they train the recruits but also establish research centres and then use these areas in the attacks against the West," he said. He said the reorganisation of al Qaeda and the similar groups in Pakistan was not only a source of apprehension for the US but also for its European allies, adding that Pakistani authorities must also be concerned. Daily Times, July 5, 2008.

[South Asian Intelligence Review]